The evaluation of innovative oncology products often depends on evidence from a small number of landmark clinical trials. These trials often present challenges of short follow-up and lack of power to measure differences in overall survival. This session discusses recent work to handle these challenges and explore the degree of uncertainty around benefits and costs. Among the work presented are novel methods for survival prediction that synthesize clinical data (from trials and external sources) with expert opinion, validation of extrapolation assumptions, comparison of structural modelling methods, and decision makers' willingness to accept surrogate endpoints.